Abstract
Wolffia globosa (W. globosa), an edible aquatic plant of the Lemnaceae family, has gained increasing attention as a potential alternative protein and functional food ingredient due to its rapid biomass production, favorable amino acid profile, and micronutrient content. This review critically evaluates the current evidence on the nutritional composition, protein quality, reported bioactive properties, safety considerations, and regulatory status of W. globosa, focusing on its suitability for food applications. Literature data indicate that W. globosa biomass can contain substantial protein levels on a dry-weight basis, with reported protein quality metrics approaching those of some conventional plant proteins under specific processing conditions. In addition, studies have explored the high antioxidant, antihypertensive, and metabolism-related bioactivities of W. globosa, primarily based on in vitro and animal studies. However, human clinical evidence remains limited, and reported functional effects should be interpreted with caution. Regulatory assessments, including novel food authorization in certain jurisdictions, support its use as a food ingredient under defined conditions but do not substantiate health claims. Overall, W. globosa represents a promising plant-based food resource; nevertheless, further standardized compositional analyses, bioavailability studies, and well-designed human trials are required to substantiate its functional and nutritional properties.
Introduction
Plant-based protein innovation has expanded beyond conventional terrestrial crops as global food systems face pressures related to population growth, climate variability, land and water constraints, and the need to improve dietary quality [1,2]. Within this landscape, small aquatic plants in the Lemnaceae family have been investigated as candidate biomass resources, as they can achieve high areal productivity under controlled conditions and can be cultivated without direct competition for arable land [3,4]. W. globosa, a rootless, free-floating species within this family, is of particular interest for food applications because it can be produced as an edible biomass that contains substantial protein on a dry-weight basis, along with other nutrients that may be relevant for diet diversification [5]. Recently, W. globosa has gained global interest as a food ingredient and potential replacement for three primary reasons: (i) its rich amino acid profile and high protein yield relative to its cultivation footprint [5]; (ii) the bioactive properties of protein hydrolysates derived from W. globosa extracts, including antioxidant capacity and peptide-mediated effects demonstrated in model systems [6,7]; and (iii) the emergence of commercial markets in several regions [8]. These attributes position W. globosa as a candidate ingredient for product development, provided that composition, safety, and evidence for function are evaluated in a manner aligned with intended food-use conditions. Unlike broader reviews that discuss Lemnaceae/duckweed in general, this review focuses specifically on W. globosa as an edible protein ingredient and critically links composition, processing, safety, and model-specific evidence for functional effects to support realistic food and nutraceutical development.
Simultaneously, the current literature contains recurring issues that complicate the translation of these findings into food and nutrition practices. Composition and protein quality metrics are not always comparable across studies because of differences in the biomass form (fresh versus dried, powder, or isolate), analytical methods, and reporting units [9]. Bioactivity findings frequently rely on in vitro assays and animal models, which are insufficient to infer human efficacy without appropriate consideration of exposure levels, bioavailability, and well-designed trials [1,6,7,10]. In addition, regulatory decisions that permit the use of food ingredients under defined conditions should not be interpreted as substantiating health claims [10]. Safety considerations are also central, because Wolffia species can accumulate contaminants from growth water; therefore, cultivation control, sourcing, and contaminant monitoring are essential when positioning W. globosa for food and nutraceutical applications. These constraints highlight the need for a critical, model-stratified review to avoid overinterpretation and identify research priorities that are directly relevant to product development and responsible communication [9].
Accordingly, this review synthesizes and critically evaluates evidence on W. globosa with a focus on food-relevant dimensions, including taxonomic clarity and production factors that influence ingredient consistency [5]; nutritional composition and protein quality assessment, including the interpretability of amino acid and digestibility metrics [9]; reported bioactive compounds and functional properties with explicit separation of evidence by experimental model [7]; processing and application considerations that can affect nutrient stability and sensory acceptability [11]; safety risks and mitigation strategies, including contaminant control in aquatic cultivation systems; regulatory status and its practical implications for food use; and sustainability claims evaluated in the context of available life cycle evidence [10]. By linking composition, processing, safety, and evidence strength, this review aims to clarify the practical application potential of W. globosa for food and nutraceutical applications and to define priority research needs for standardized compositional specifications, bioavailability assessment, and human substantiation of functional outcomes.
6. Functional and Nutraceutical Ingredients
6.1. Potential Bioactive Compounds and Prospective Development Strategies
W. globosa comprises various naturally occurring bioactive compounds, some of which can be readily extracted and utilized in their native forms. Phenolic acids and flavonoids are the predominant bioactive compounds in numerous edible plants, including W. globosa [43,45,54]. Protocatechuic acid, gallic acid, quercetin, and apigenin are routinely detected and associated with antioxidant capacity [7]. Furthermore, W. globosa is proposed as an abundant source of phytosterols, including β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and vitamin B12 [6,50]. However, the composition of these compounds may vary due to numerous factors, including species, cultivation sites, light exposure, temperature, nutrient availability, and extraction conditions. In addition to the standard extraction methods for obtaining bioactive compounds for direct application, various techniques have been explored to enhance the bioactivity of compounds in W. globosa, minimize the impact of uncontrollable factors, and allow for increased precision in the development of high-value functional constituents. Focusing on one such technique, biotransformation in plant cells represents a potential biological process for stimulating the biosynthesis of phenolic compounds or generating novel derivatives with altered structures and functions. For example, selenium biotransformation effectively promotes the accumulation of bioactive compounds, notably indole-3-acryloylglycine and spiculosine, in W. globosa [45,54].
Furthermore, as W. globosa is widely regarded as a novel protein source, enhancing the bioactivity of its native proteins is an alternative and effective approach. The selenium biotransformation pathway has been identified as a promising biosynthetic process for producing bioactive selenoamino acids, such as selenocysteine and selenomethionine, through the absorption of selenium, which plants store via metabolic processes. The synthesis of selenoamino acids into selenoproteins has promising potential for various bioactivities, including antioxidant effects, anticancer properties, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition [45,54]. Enzymatic hydrolysis is another crucial method used to cleave and release functional regions within native protein structures, leading to increased protein bioactivity. Protamex and Alcalase, widely utilized commercial enzymes, efficiently cleave peptide bonds, releasing active peptides that contribute to antioxidant and anticancer properties [1]. As each enzyme possesses a unique catalytic mechanism, the use of distinct individual enzymes or combinations of enzymes may be advantageous for producing bioactive peptides with diverse activities. However, the unhydrolyzed form of protein has also been reported to exhibit antioxidant properties and reduce pro-inflammatory cytokine production [46].
6.2. Bioactivities and Possible Mechanisms Associated with W. globosa Proteins
The proteins and derivatives obtained through native isolation, biotransformation, and enzymatic modification exhibit numerous bioactivities (Table 5). According to Pakdeebamrung et al. [54], selenopeptides derived from Se-enriched W. globosa exhibit greater antioxidant activity than conventional peptides, as Se enrichment markedly enhances their free radical-scavenging capacity, leading to improved redox properties. Furthermore, selenopeptides exert an inhibitory effect on lung cancer cells (A549) through the interaction of selenium-binding protein 1 (SELENBP1) in cancer regulation, promoting apoptosis and significantly reducing the proliferation, migration, and invasive capacity of cancer cells [54]. The protein derived from W. globosa without hydrolysis significantly reduced the secretion of interleukin 1β (IL-1β), a key regulator of the inflammatory response, in LPS-stimulated THP-1-derived macrophages. Furthermore, the isolated protein may suppress IκB-α phosphorylation and NF-κB translocation, consequently decreasing the expression of COX-2. These dual actions endorse W. globosa protein as a viable candidate for anti-inflammatory nutraceuticals [46]
Plant-derived protein hydrolysates exhibit bioactivity, including anticancer activity. Bioactivity is influenced by numerous factors, including peptide size, amino acid sequence, and hydrophobicity, which are affected by the protein source and enzymes used. Bioactive hydrophobic peptides derived from W. globosa can chemically interact with the membrane bilayers on the outer leaflets of the human ovarian cancer cell line (A2780), thereby inducing apoptosis and inhibiting the cell cycle [1]. Furthermore, peptides may suppress certain microorganisms, such as V. parahaemolyticus and C. albicans [33]. This inhibitory mechanism is hypothesized to arise from electrostatic interactions between the positively charged peptide regions and anionic bacterial membrane surfaces, leading to increased membrane permeability and subsequent leakage of cellular content [55].
Other forms of W. globosa utilization have been documented for their beneficial effects. Extracts of W. globosa, which are abundant in β-sitosterol and stigmasterol, demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 macrophages [6]. Furthermore, incorporating W. globosa into Mediterranean diets and shakes offers beneficial effects, including elevating serum B12 levels, regulating postprandial glycemic response, maintaining iron homeostasis in humans, and effectively reversing anemia in rats [36,50,56].
Table 5. Bioactivities of the tested compounds/products and their possible mechanisms.
6.3. Impact of Processing on Nutritional and Functional Quality
Limitations in product preservation and quality control for the most popular processing method of W. globosa include drying. However, traditional drying alters the quality of W. globosa, particularly its color and free radical content. It also affects consumer acceptance of the product. The effect of heat treatment during processing on the quality changes of W. globosa was investigated [11,57]. Optimal processing was found to preserve the green color of dried W. globosa, as assessed by chlorophyll retention and resulting color values. One popular method for preserving color, especially the green color of the raw material, is to use heat to inhibit the enzyme polyphenol peroxidase (PPO), which causes browning in fruits and vegetables, along with salt solutions to replace metal ions in the chlorophyll structure that can be lost due to heat treatment [58]. Excessive moisture content in fresh W. globosa is a significant obstacle to value chain development and the full utilization of its potential applications [58]. Cell lysis and dehumidification before drying fresh W. globosa resulted in the extraction of 560–650 mL of water per kg of fresh W. globosa, significantly reducing the pre-drying moisture levels and decreasing drying time and costs (Yadav et al.) [43]. The impact of processing on nutritional and functional quality is shown in Table 6.
Table 6. Impact of processing on nutritional and functional qualities.
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Venkatachalam, K.; Phongthai, S.; Puttha, R.; Wongsa, J.; Charoenphun, N. Wolffia globosa as an Emerging Plant-Based Protein Source for Functional and Nutraceuticals. Foods 2026, 15, 543. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15030543
