Abstract
Oligosaccharide prebiotics, such as inulin, fructooligosaccharides (FOS), and galactooligosaccharides (GOS), have demonstrated significant effects on gut microbiota and host health across in vitro, animal, and clinical studies. These studies consistently report an increase in beneficial bacteria, particularly Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus, leading to higher production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) such as acetate, propionate, and butyrate. These metabolic changes are linked to improved integrity of the epithelial barrier, reduced inflammatory signaling, modulation of immune responses, and enhanced metabolic balance. Biotechnological production methods, including enzymatic synthesis, microbial fermentation, and controlled depolymerization of plant polysaccharides, allow for precise control over the degree of polymerization and the types of glycosidic linkages.
This control directly affects the fermentability, microbial selectivity, and functional effectiveness of the prebiotics. When incorporated into functional food systems, oligosaccharide prebiotics can enhance physicochemical properties such as texture, sweetness, and stability, all while maintaining their biological performance. Advanced delivery technologies, such as nano- and microencapsulation, improve thermal stability, resistance to gastrointestinal degradation, and targeted colon-specific release. Additionally, synbiotic formulations can further enhance the effectiveness of these prebiotics by promoting microbial colonization and sustained availability of SCFAs. Therapeutic benefits have been observed across various models of gastrointestinal health, metabolism, immune responses, and the gut-brain axis. These benefits involve mechanisms such as GPCR activation, histone deacetylase inhibition, and cytokine regulation. However, several challenges remain, including dose-dependent gastrointestinal intolerance, variability in individual microbiomes, degradation during processing, regulatory hurdles, and high costs of downstream processing. Overall, these findings highlight oligosaccharide prebiotics as versatile and scalable biotechnological ingredients, emphasizing the need for standardized production methods, precise dosing, and long-term clinical validation.
Introduction
Functional foods are crucial in modern healthcare, offering benefits beyond essential nutrition. Enriched with bioactive compounds, they help prevent chronic diseases and promote overall well-being (Topolska et al. 2021). Recent changes in food consciousness have led us to invest in functional foods, including prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics (Al-Habsi et al. 2024). The research area extends to postbiotics, gut microbiome, and further genomic studies such as nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics (Lagoumintzis and Patrinos 2023). Probiotics are food supplements generally containing living bacteria, such as yoghurt, whereas prebiotics are typically foods having inert fibres, such as fruits, vegetables, and grains (Marco et al. 2021). Prebiotics, a key component of functional foods, are nondigestible ingredients that selectively stimulate beneficial gut microorganisms, such as bifidobacteria and lactic acid bacteria (Victoria Obayomi et al. 2024).
They are naturally present in plant sources like chicory, onion, garlic, bananas, tomato, corn starch/cobs, apple peels, citrus fruits, sugar beet pulp, yeast cell walls, bamboo, birchwood, oats, barley, soybeans, crustacean shells, asparagus, mushrooms, chitin, konjac root, agave plant, artichoke, cereal brans, brown algae, larch tree, psyllium husk etc. (Chowdhury et al. 2015). They can also be produced using microorganisms and their enzymes through fermentation processes (Lockyer and Stanner 2019). Prebiotics are classified as natural or synthetic, but are generally grouped based on their resistance to digestion, fermentation by the gut microbiota, and health benefits. The general class of prebiotics includes oligosaccharides, polyols, and dietary fibers (Davani-Davari et al. 2019). Prebiotics are characterised by three key attributes: (a) their ability to withstand acidity, enzymatic hydrolysis by the host, and gastro-intestinal absorption; (b) their capacity to undergo fermentation by the gut microbiota; and (c) their selective promotion of the growth and/or metabolic activity of beneficial intestinal bacteria that contribute to host health and well-being (Gibson et al. 2004). Among these, oligosaccharide prebiotics have gained attention for their ability to modulate gut microbiota, enhance immune function, and support metabolic health (Zeng et al. 2023). Oligosaccharides, prebiotics found naturally or synthesised, such as fructooligosaccharides (FOS), galactooligosaccharides (GOS), xylooligosaccharides (XOS), and others, serve as key prebiotic ingredients in functional foods (Table 1).
Homogenised samples of oligosaccharides and glycoconjugates can also be obtained chemically, enzymatically, or by other biological methods for systematic studies (Lv et al. 2023). With the growing applications in functional foods and therapeutics, oligosaccharide-based prebiotics are promising to shape the future of preventive healthcare and nutrition. This review explores the innovations and challenges in utilising oligosaccharide prebiotics in functional foods and therapeutics, highlighting their potential in disease prevention and healthcare advancements.
Comparative analysis of oligosaccharide prebiotics with other functional ingredients
Differences between prebiotics, probiotics, and postbiotics
Probiotics are live microorganisms that act through various means, including competing for colonization sites and nutrients, inhibiting growth by producing SCFAs and bacteriocins, modulating the immune response, and improving gut barrier integrity. Examples of probiotics include yogurt, kefir, sauerkraut, kimchi, and miso. Prebiotics are non-living, specialised plant fibers that are selectively utilised by host microbes to alter the microbiome’s composition and activity, promoting reproduction and metabolism of intestinal probiotics. Examples of prebiotics can be bananas, onions, garlic, asparagus, and chicory root. Postbiotics are inactivated bacteria and bacterial components, including cell structures, secretory molecules, and metabolites, which play a vital role in restoring intestinal flora and improving blood glucose levels, exerting a wide range of actions. Examples of postbiotics include SCFAs such as butyrate, amino acids, vitamins B and K, and antimicrobial peptides (Collado et al. 2019). The differences between these terminologies are illustrated in Fig. 1, and a comparative overview is outlined in Table 2.
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Sandra, K.S., Vithalkar, M.P., Beere, V. et al. Oligosaccharide prebiotics in functional foods and therapeutics: innovations and challenges. 3 Biotech 16, 254 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-026-04776-1
