Abstract
Introduction
Algae-derived bioactive peptides are gaining recognition as functional ingredients offering health benefits and sustainability advantages over conventional proteins. This review aimed to evaluate the current evidence on algal peptides, focusing on their nutritional content, mechanistic actions, health effects, potential for sustainability, and translational challenges.
Materials and Methods
A comprehensive literature search was conducted across PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Springer, Elsevier, and Google Scholar. Peer-reviewed studies reporting bioactive peptides derived from microalgae, macroalgae, or Cyanophyceae were included. In vitro, animal, and human intervention studies evaluating molecular mechanisms, metabolic outcomes, or clinical relevance were considered.
Results
Available evidence shows that algal peptides exert multifunctional bioactivities, including inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme and renin, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, modulation of glucose metabolism via α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and DPP-IV inhibition, and regulation of lipid metabolism and adipogenesis. Frequently studied sources included Limnospira, Chlorella, Auxenochlorella, Nannochloropsis, Undaria, Palmaria, Ulva, and Neopyropia. Limited human trials suggest modest but clinically relevant improvements in blood pressure, glycemic control, lipid profiles, and body-weight-related outcomes, primarily using whole algal biomass or extracts. Life-cycle assessments highlight favorable land-use efficiency and carbon sequestration potential, although economic feasibility is constrained by energy-intensive downstream processing.
Conclusion
Algal-derived peptides demonstrate promising health-promoting effects and align with sustainable nutrition goals. However, their clinical translation is limited by variability in peptide characterization, uncertain bioavailability, and lack of robust human trials. Standardized production methods, improved delivery strategies, comprehensive safety assessments, and well-designed clinical studies are essential to support their application in functional foods and nutraceuticals.
1. Introduction
Algae are among the oldest organisms on earth, first appearing approximately 3.5 billion years ago [Citation1]. Algae are regarded as “superfoods” due to their exceptional and diverse nutritional profile. This heterogeneous group comprises both unicellular microalgae and multicellular macroalgae, which exhibit distinct biological and ecological characteristics. They are recognized for their rapid growth, effective utilization of light energy, ability to fix atmospheric CO2, and capacity to produce greater biomass per hectare than vascular plants [Citation2]. Microalgae, in particular, represent an exceptionally diverse group, with species estimates ranging from 200,000 to 800,000 [Citation3]. They are among the most efficient photosynthetic organisms, with reported photosynthetic efficiencies of approximately 10–20%, exceeding those of most terrestrial plants under optimized conditions [Citation4]. These attributes have positioned microalgae as promising candidates for sustainable biomass and protein production. However, productivity and efficiency vary widely among species and cultivation systems, and large-scale implementation remains influenced by technological, economic, and environmental constraints.
From a sustainability perspective, microalgae offer several advantages over land-based food systems [Citation5]. Photosynthetic microalgae are found in every habitat and have wide ecological adaptations. Furthermore, microalgae cultivation mounts less stress on arable land and freshwater resources, as they can be grown on non-arable land with a minimum quantity of freshwater or even cultivated in wastewater or seawater [Citation6]. Over recent decades, microalgae biomass has been widely used as an additive in aquatic and animal feed, highlighting its growing significance and practical applications [Citation7].
In terms of land-use efficiency, algal proteins require substantially less land than both animal- and plant-derived protein sources. For instance, producing 1 kg of algal protein requires only about 2.5 m2 of land, whereas pork, chicken, and beef require approximately 47–64 m2, 42–52 m2, and 144–258 m2 of land, respectively [Citation8,Citation9]. Algae also demonstrate superior land efficiency over several plant-based sources, with nuts requiring 7.9 m2, pulses 7.3 m2, grains 4.6 m2, and peas 3.4 m2 of land per kg of protein [Citation10].
Beyond protein quantity, microalgae are increasingly studied for their bioactive components, including peptides with potential health-promoting properties. As such, microalgae align closely with several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [Citation11], particularly those related to food security, health promotion, responsible consumption, and environmental sustainability [Citation12]. Accordingly, this review consolidates current evidence on algal bioactive peptides, with a critical emphasis on mechanistic insights, preclinical outcomes, and emerging clinical data. In parallel, it addresses sustainability considerations, technological innovations, and regulatory challenges that collectively shape the future development and application of algal peptides in food and health sectors.
4. Commercialized algal protein-based nutraceuticals
Algal proteins and peptides are commonly marketed as powders, capsules, or tablets and are valued for their broad spectrum of health benefits, including supporting cardiovascular health, boosting the immune system, reducing inflammation, and providing potent antioxidant protection [Citation6]. Chlorella and Spirulina/Limnospira are especially known for their high protein content and are frequently utilized as dietary supplements. Additionally, other algae such as Haematococcus lacustris (formerly Haematococcus puvialis) (Chlorophyta) and Limnospira platensis are celebrated for their rich content of compounds like astaxanthin, which offer specific therapeutic benefits. Table 6 presents a comprehensive overview of commercially available nutraceuticals derived from various algal species, emphasizing the role of algal proteins [Citation169,Citation175–178].
Table 6. List of commercialized nutraceuticals available in different parts of the world.
9. Future perspectives
Building upon the technological innovations and challenges discussed above, future research on algal peptides should prioritize translational studies that validate their efficacy, safety, and scalability for real-world applications. To strengthen the bridge between laboratory findings and applied nutrition, upcoming studies should focus on long-term randomized clinical trials that establish dose–response relationships, absorption kinetics, and measurable physiological outcomes in diverse populations.
Despite ongoing challenges, the field of algal bioactive peptides is advancing rapidly, driven by innovations in bioinformatics, omics technologies, and machine learning. These tools enable precise prediction and modeling of peptide bioactivity based on amino acid sequences, facilitating the rational design of peptides tailored to specific therapeutic targets and enhancing both efficiency and functionality within development pipelines [Citation257]. Integrating proteomics, metabolomics, and transcriptomics with AI-based peptide discovery could further unravel structure-function relationships and reveal new bioactive motifs with superior stability or selectivity. Alongside these technological strides, attention is increasingly turning toward underexplored algal species, particularly extremophiles, organisms that thrive in harsh environmental conditions. These unique species offer a largely untapped reservoir of peptides with potentially novel structures and bio-functionalities, expanding the scope for discovery beyond well-characterized taxa [Citation257,Citation258]. As the search for alternative protein sources intensifies, these underexplored algae may prove valuable in diversifying both the functional and nutritional landscape of future foods.
Simultaneously, the dual role of algal proteins as both bioactive and techno-functional agents, serving as emulsifiers, gelling agents, and stabilizers, broadens their utility in modern food systems [Citation141,Citation201]. This versatility makes them particularly suitable for integration into innovative product formats such as functional beverages, fortified snacks, or meal replacements. Notably, algae-derived bioactive peptides have demonstrated various health benefits, including anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, and antihypertensive activities. These properties suggest potential applications in personalized nutrition strategies aimed at managing conditions like diabetes and hypertension. Advancements in bioinformatics and silico methods, such as quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSAR) and molecular docking, facilitate the identification and design of specific peptides tailored to individual nutritional needs [Citation257,Citation259].
To ensure sustainable development, future work should emphasize industrial scalability through improved bioreactor efficiency, the use of low-cost substrates, and the integration of cultivation systems with wastewater treatment and carbon capture. Embedding algal peptide production into circular bioeconomy models will help lower production costs while minimizing environmental impact. In parallel, integrating microalgae cultivation with wastewater treatment and carbon dioxide sequestration aligns with circular bioeconomy principles, offering a sustainable model for producing high-value bioproducts, including bioactive peptides [Citation260]. Equally important is the development of policies and consumer education programs that address labeling, allergenicity, and perceived safety concerns. Strong collaboration between scientists, regulatory bodies, and industry stakeholders will be essential to build public confidence and support market adoption.
However, as the field progresses toward the commercialization of peptides derived from novel or underutilized algal species, ensuring consumer safety remains paramount. Comprehensive toxicological evaluations and allergenicity assessments are critical, alongside the development of standardized protocols for peptide extraction, characterization, and regulatory compliance. These measures are essential to support the commercial scalability and global acceptance of algal-derived functional ingredients. Ultimately, by bridging mechanistic understanding, technological innovation, and regulatory readiness, algal peptides could emerge as a cornerstone of sustainable nutrition, contributing not only to human health but also to environmental resilience and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
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Navigating the potential of algal peptides: health effects, marketapplications, and scientific challenges, Muniba Khaliq, Zahra Noor, Mnahil Moazzam, Fatima Saeed, Khadija- Tul-Zohra, Eisha Tariq, Hafiz Muhammad Shahbazd and Kashaf Khaliq, AnnAls of Medicine2026, Vol. 58, no. 1, 2637282
