Abstract
Propolis, a resinous bee product rich in phenolic acids, flavonoids, and essential minerals, exhibits antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties, positioning it as a valuable functional ingredient in food and health industries. This study evaluates the impact of extraction solvents and techniques on propolis quality and bioactivity. A systematic review compared solvents (ethanol, water, polyethylene glycol) and methods (maceration, ultrasound-assisted, microwave-assisted extraction), assessing phenolic/flavonoid content, antioxidant activities (ABTS, FRAP, DPPH), and antimicrobial efficacy. Results identified 70 % ethanol as the optimal solvent, yielding superior antioxidant activity and flavonoid content. Ultrasound-assisted extraction emerged as the most efficient technique, maximizing bioactive recovery in shorter durations while preserving functionality. Extracts from these methods demonstrated enhanced antimicrobial effects against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, underscoring their potential as natural preservatives and therapeutic agents. The study concludes that solvent and technique selection critically influence propolis quality. Optimal results are achieved with 70 % ethanol and ultrasound-assisted extraction, ensuring high bioactive compound recovery and broad applicability in functional foods and health-related products.
Introduction
Propolis, a resinous product synthesized by bees, is a complex mixture derived from plant resins, beeswax, and bee secretions. Its origin lies in the foraging behavior of bees, which collect resins from diverse botanical sources such as leaf buds, flowers, bark exudates, and other plant tissues and enzymatically modify them using salivary β-glucosidase and other enzymes (Salatino et al., 2021; Wagh, 2013). This process results in a malleable material used by bees to seal hives, inhibit pathogens, and maintain colony health. Propolis composition is inherently variable, as it depends on the geographical location, plant biodiversity, and bee species involved (e.g., Apis mellifera in temperate regions vs. stingless bees like Tetragonula spp. in tropical zones) (Migliore et al., 2022; Herrera-López et al., 2023). Such ecological and biological diversity gives rise to distinct propolis types, such as European “poplar-type,” Brazilian green (from Baccharis spp.), and Mediterranean propolis, each with unique phytochemical profiles (Bertolucci et al., 2025). There are several types of propolis, as each type of propolis is produced by different species of bees (Zullkiflee et al., 2022). Propolis is typically composed of several chemicals, including 50 % resin, 30 % wax, 10 % essential oils, 5 % pollen, and 5 % other substances which include minerals and organic compounds like phenolic acids (cinnamic and caffeic acid) or their esters, flavonoids (flavones, flavanones, flavonols, and dihydroflavonols chalcones), terpenes, aromatic aldehydes and alcohols, fatty acids, stilbenes, and β-steroids (Barlak et al., 2011). In addition, propolis is also comprised of various vitamins, such as vitamin A, B complex, C, and E. Minerals in propolis include aluminum, sodium, potassium, calcium, copper, magnesium, iron, and zinc (Pasupuleti et al., 2017; Abdullah et al., 2019). Both minerals and organic secondary metabolites in propolis contribute to its various biological activities (Pasupuleti et al., 2017; Abdullah et al., 2019).
Harvesting practices for bee products significantly affect yield and bioactive quality. In traditional systems (Babarinde et al., 2011), honey collection often requires comb crushing, while modern centrifugal and flow-hive methods preserve hive integrity (Babarinde et al., 2011; Archibong et al., 2021; Bona, 2022). Similarly, propolis can be harvested using specialized mesh traps or Modular Tetragonula hives (MOTIVEs), which mimic natural nesting conditions and optimize resin collection in stingless bees such as Tetragonula laeviceps (Shin et al., 2023; Biscaia & Ferreira, 2009; Abduh et al., 2020). Efficient, non-destructive collection practices for propolis, honey, and beeswax are central to sustainable apiculture and influence the physicochemical characteristics of bee-derived nutraceuticals (Pobiega et al., 2019; Bankova et al., 2021)
Since ancient times, propolis has been used by humans for various necessities, e.g., as a preservative agent for the mummification process for millennia in ancient Egypt (Mejanelle et al., 1997). Propolis has also been used as a medication for skin lesions, ulcers, and sores (Kuropatnicki et al., 2013). In the modern age, propolis is being studied for the reduction of risks of developing chronic diseases like diabetes and neurodegeneration, vascular diseases, but also its role in dermatovenerology and respiratory disease (Zullkiflee et al., 2022). However, there are still some issues regarding the quality control of propolis products (Hossain et al., 2022). Hence, this paper includes literature data to assess the honey-bee extraction technique versus the quality of the extracted material.
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Methods
A comprehensive literature search was performed across four electronic databases: PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect, covering publications available up to March 2025. The search strategy utilized a combination of relevant keywords, including: “propolis,” “bee propolis,” “extraction technique,” “ultrasound assisted extraction,” “microwave-assisted extraction,” “nutritional value,” “bioactive com pounds,” “functional food,” “antioxidant,” “antimicrobial,” and “health benefit,” using Boolean operators to maximize sensitivity and specificity. The inclusion criteria comprised original research articles published in English that investigated the extraction of bee-derived propolis using various methods or solvents and reported outcomes related to nutritional composition, antioxidant or antimicrobial activity, or functional food applications. Studies that focused solely on chemical profiling without evaluating the biological or nutritional effects, as well as reviews, book chapters, conference abstracts, or those without full-text access, were excluded. Articles not centered on honeybee-derived propolis, such as those involving only plant resins or other bee products like honey or royal jelly, were also excluded. Title and abstract screening were performed independently by two reviewers, followed by a full-text assessment of potentially eligible studies. Discrepancies in selection were resolved through consensus or consultation with a third reviewer to ensure the validity and integrity of the selection process.
Joice Junita Imelda Rompas, Santie H. Turagan, Felicia Angelica Gunawan, Derren David Christian Homenta Rampengan, Ester Ribchania Seran, Samuel Partogi Nababan, Raffaele Romano, Antonello Santini, Fahrul Nurkolis, Bee propolis-enhancing its nutraceutical and nutritional value through optimized extraction: An opinion focus on techniques and solvent effects, Applied Food Research, Volume 5, Issue 2, 2025, 101538, ISSN 2772-5022, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2025.101538.
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